Perspectives on Abortion

Otis Latin ENGL1301. 17 Mrs. Marcom Abortion Title: Perspectives on Abortion: Pro-Choice, Pro-Life, and What Lies in between Author: Raquel Lopez This essay is a very deep and descriptive essay about abortions and the history behind it. There are two different perspectives discussed in this essay and they are, Pro-Life, and Pro-Choice. The essay talks about the historical perspectives of abortion, pro-life perspectives, moral relativism, philosophical considerations, the church’s views on abortion, pro-choice perspectives, abortion relationship with crime, and the politics of abortion.The author’s main idea is that pro-life and pro-choice perspectives are all based on the person’s emotions and often fail to make logical sense. As the author states, Pro-Life has two main approaches: moral perspectives and religious perspectives. Sometimes these two perspectives intertwine and have some similarities but in many ways they do the complete opposite. â€Å"The religio us perspective has very little to be debated considering it embraces the belief in a supernatural almighty entity; and there is, in fact, very little literature discussing the logics of religion†(512).The author is saying that the religious perspective is saying abortion is wrong based on their beliefs of the importance of a life. â€Å"Critics of abortion attack the fact that despite cultural background, abortion is wrong just as killing is wrong and stealing is wrong in any society, regardless of cultural values†(513). The moral perspective is saying that abortion is wrong just like stealing and killing is wrong. The author disagrees because everything people say is right isn’t necessarily right. This helps prove the author’s thesis that your perspective is based off of emotion and not fact.On the other hand there is the Pro-choice perspective of abortion. This means that the people believe in having the choice to have an abortion or not. This essay disc usses the history of women as caregivers and nurturers. In these roles they were very close to their children and highly unlikeable for them to think of abortion. Now that times have changed the essay talks about how the change in behavior of women affects the children mentally and physically. For example the article says lack of attention can lead to: low self-esteem, anger problems, attention deficit behavioral issues, child molestation, and verbal abuse (514).The author’s intended audience was to everyone who has debates or assumptions on abortions. The author addresses pro-life and pro-choice perspective by comparing and contrasting all arguments and backing it up with facts. The author does not make any assumptions, and he clearly backed up his argument. While the author’s thesis focused on the use of emotion and abortion perspective, he ends by showing his own personal view. In his conclusion, the author discusses how unfair it is for many children to be forced i nto poor homes.The author believes that this is a result decision based on emotion. Why Abortion is Immoral Don Marquis This essay is telling the reasons why abortion is considered immoral. The author suggests that abortion is in the same moral category as killing a human being. The author also states that he does not want to base the article off of religion like most anti-abortionist point of views. He does however want to base it on morality and ethics. By doing this the author will cover the non religious people’s perspective of abortion. In an essay like this writing strategies are really important.With this being said his writing strategies help him prove a point that isn’t very popular. The author uses several writing strategies to get his point achieve this goal. He starts by comparing and contrasting anti abortionist and pro-choice perspectives. In his compare and contrast he gives examples of typical pro-choice and anti abortionist views. The author states tha t â€Å"Passions in the abortion debate run high. There are both plausibilities and difficulties with the standard positions†(188). After comparing and contrasting the two perspectives, the author points out the issues of each point of view.For every point the author makes he list several examples to support his main idea. Basically this entire essay is the author’s argument that abortion is equal to killing a young child. One of the most persuasive strategies is that the author describes opposite viewpoints, and then says why they are wrong. This is why the author talks a lot about â€Å"symmetry between the accounts†(197). One example of this symmetry is when the author talks about some beliefs that â€Å"fetuses lack of property that is essential for the value-of-a-future †(198). Many people might disagree with this point.In fact, this point goes against the author’s perspective that abortion is immoral. He still talks about this in his essay th ough because it gives him an opportunity to say why the person that holds this belief is wrong. The author believes that people that hold this view are wrong because if a fetus lacks value and doesn’t deserve to live then the same must be said for plants and people in comas (199). Overall the author does a good job of getting his point across. He uses compare and contrast, he describes different examples of different viewpoints and he makes a strong case that abortion is immoral.His purpose was to show an anti abortion view that was based on morality and ethics and not â€Å"irrational religious dogma† (183) or a â€Å"confused philosophical argument† (183) and he succeeded. This essay shows that religion is not the only reason why people might be opposed to abortion. Not looking at religion some people may still believe that abortion is similar to killing an innocent man or woman who didn’t deserve to die. Bibliography Lopez, Raquel. Perspectives on Abor tion: Pro-Choice, Pro-Life, and What Lies in between: EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2012 Marquis, Don. Why Abortion is Immoral: Journal of Philosophy, Inc. 1989

Apple’s marketing relationship building with the target customers Essay

1. Introduction With the intensified competition and the rapid development of information technology, firms are facing unprecedented both opportunities and challenges in marketing. Marketing is a social platform to provide chances for individuals and groups to obtain what they need and want through exchanging various products with others (Kotler, 1974).In the contemporary society, people can not live without marketing with others which is much more important to firms. This report tends to evaluate how Apple-one of the most innovative and creative companies builds marketing relationships with its target customers through brand building. What is more, this report attaches much importance to customer profile which reveals some basic information about customers. This report is organized as follows. The first section is the introduction. The second part shows how Apple’s customer profile affects its brand building to have a closer marketing relationship with customers. The third one illustrates how Apple builds its brand and gradually builds the marketing relationship with customers through branding and customer profiles. From this part, it will be clearly clarified how Apple’s brand has amazing magic to attract so many fans. The last section is the conclusion. 2. Evaluation about customer profile of Apple According to Barron’s Marketing Dictionary, customer profile is the description of a customer group based on various demographic and psychographic characteristic. Apple collects customer profile through customers’ downloads in the app store. And these downloads are limited to Apple-buyers who have credentials. From these credentials, Apple can trace customers’ information thus finishing its profiles collecting. From Apple’s customer profile, it can be found that: ï  ¬Most Apple-users are young with professions and students take great part in the using of Apple products. A recent survey in 2008 based on the profile of iPhone users showed that most of the iPhone users are young and about 75% of iPhone users have used products of Apple before. (The Apple iPhone: successes and challenges for the mobile industry, 2008). It can be found from the picture below which shows the age distribution of iPhone users that most iPhone-users are beyond 40 years old and half of iPhone users are under the age of thirty. Figure2-1: The age distribution of iPhone-user Besides Apple’s customer profiles show that most of (79%) Apple-users are employed and 16% of Apple-users are students. In general, iPhone users tend to adopt progress of new technology. The research found that most iPhone-users are in the position of professional and scientific services, arts and the information and technology industry (The Apple iPhone: successes and challenges for the mobile industry, 2008). In addition, about 66% of households with Apple devices earn $60,000 or more in their income, compared with just over half of non-Apple users can earn that much (Apple profile report, 2008). In addition, from these two pictures below, it can be found that Apple users have obtained a higher educational level. From the Apple profile report 2008, it can be found that 68% have completed a 4-year university degree and even higher educational level like post-graduate degree or doctor degree. By comparison, only 45% of non-Apple households have reached this high educational level. It seems that Apple-users usually have higher educational level and higher incomes which help to afford them a higher disposable income, so that Apple’s high price not a barrier to them. (Apple profile report, 2008). In all, it can be concluded that Apple is favored by the economically elite. Figure 2-2: The working conditions of Apple-users Figure 2-3: The Educational level of Apple users Figure 2-4: The educational level of non-Apple users (Sources: The data comes from Apple profile report 2008) ï  ¬Apple-users take good advantage of internet. From the picture below, it can be found from the Apple profile report 2008 that 63% of Apple users spend more time using their computers to search the internet than watching TV. But only 57% of non-Apple users spend more time on computers than watching TV. While when comes to enjoying the fun on the internet, the difference between Apple users to non-Apple users is only slight. It has been found that there are almost 60% of Apple users keep discovering more ways to use the internet for fun and about 58% of the non-Apple users try to do that (The Apple iPhone: successes and challenges for the mobile industry, 2008). Since Apple-users are usually with higher level of education and most of them are employed, it is not strange that they take good advantage of internet and they also know better to use their devices for a better life. But Apple users still do not have better ideas to enjoy the fun of internet with their innovative devices. It could be a challenge for Apple to come up with new ways of enjoying the fun of internet with Apple devices. Figure 2-6: Comparison of Apple-users to non-Apple users on time-spending with computer and TV (Sources: The data comes from Apple profile report 2008 ) ï  ¬Apple-users are loyal to Apple’s products. What is more, it has been found that about Apple-users are loyal to products of Apple. From a survey on whether customers who use iPhone now have any other Apple devices, it has found that 49% of iPhone-users have used iPod previously. 20% of iPhone-users have used Mac and iPod and only 5% iPhone-users have once used Mac but no iPod. Only 26% of iPhone users do not use iPod or Mac before. So from the survey, it can be found that about 3 quarters who use iPhone today once have used Apple devices previously. These findings show that Apple-users are loyal to Apple’s various kinds of products and customers are quite satisfied with products of Apple. Figure 2-5: Did you own an iPod before you got your iPhone? To conclude, Apple with its various kinds of fantastic and innovative products such as iTunes, iPod, iPad, iPhone attract young people and turn them to be loyal customers of Apple. These customers who have high income or high educational level help to make the brand of Apple to have high status in the markets. And these customers’ love of Apple not only maintains brand loyalty of Apple but also attracts more and more customers get in love with Apple. 3. Analysis of how Apple builds marketing relationship with customers 3.1 Apple’s brand building with branding Brand has many advantages which companies can take to get closer to customers for more sales including improved perceptions of product performance, greater customer loyalty and increased marketing communication effectiveness (Keller, 2009).It is well acknowledged that brand has vital importance to a company even to a product or one kind of service. Especially in this fast-changing world, products are getting to be more similar because of the fierce competition which makes brand to be the difference between various products. Brands help to build sustained relationship with the customers. Strong brands lend endurance and performance to an organization and protect it from the market turbulence and uncertainties (Kapoor & Kulshrestha, 2011). In addition, brand gives customers a sense of reliance even makes them feel a better quality of life. Brands make meanings that become conventionally understood and shared across interpretive communities. (Holt, 2010, McCracken, 1996, and Kats, 2006 etc). The brand concept of Apple is â€Å"think different† which has last for over 30 years. From the creative and innovative products like iPod, iPad and iPhone, Apple always brings customers surprise and defines how to â€Å"think different†. In addition, Apple pursues to build a humanistic corporate culture with a strong corporate atmosphere to inspire employees to work voluntarily which can leave good impression on customers (Kahney, 2012). The famous global brand consultancy Interbrand which aims at creating and managing brand value released â€Å"2012 Best Global Brands† list, Apple jumps into the ranking 2 in the world, and the brand value growth is 129%. The brand of Apple has been a miracle in the global world. How dose the brand of Apple grow so quickly in the contemporary society? The following part will investigate this problem. The first step of is to get the customers’ attention. The advertisement of Apple has always maintained surprise which arouse the attention of customers. Since Steve Jobs returned Apple, the first release of iMac, either the video or the outdoor propaganda is featured with characteristic of Apple which makes the brand of Apple unique. Al Ries and Jack Trout pointed out in the book of 《The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing》in 1994 that if an enterprise can not be the â€Å"first† in the consumers’ choices in the industry, then the best way is to create a new category to attract consumers. And the â€Å"opposite Law† pointed that to occupy the minds of consumers as the â€Å"second† best choices; the brand communication strategy is not to try to go beyond the â€Å"first†, but to be different. In the early eighties, Apple is trying to compete with the industry leader-IBM and then rapidly gain the attention of consumers. Through the long advertising campaign, such as â€Å"1984†³and â€Å"Think different†, Apple has built the spirit of innovation and fearless which brings the concept of the brand. Later with the promotion of iPhone and iPad, the advertisement of Apple started to focus on elite people. The people who use Apple’s products in the advertisement are usually well educated and pursue a higher quality of life. Through these advertisements, the brand of Apple has been positioned as elite and high quality of life. With customers’ attention, they are interested in the product of Apple and have the desire to buy the product. The productions of Apple’s products are tools for those who are ambitious and passionate to change the world. To conclude, through segmenting the targeting markets, Apple finds its own position and its target or potential customers. Products like iPhone, iPad, iMac are innovative and fashion which are favored by those who have high income with professions or those who are pursuing fashions. To them, Apple’s products are unique and innovative. By meeting customers’ demands and satisfying their psychological needs, Apple has built its branding and gradually makes the brand meaningful and attractive, thus making the brand o f Apple world-famous. 3.2 Building marketing relationship with branding and customer profile Marketing relationship is a process including identifying target or potential customers, establishing relationship with them, maintaining these customers and finally enhancing relationships with them (Gronroos, 1997). And in order to build marketing relationship with customers, it is of great importance to know better about customer relationship management. Customer relationship marketing is to maintain brand loyalty and stimulate repeat and even more purchases of customers (Murdy & Pike, 2012). Kumar (2010) pointed out that customer relationship management is the strategic process of targeting the important customers and provide them with well-considered services to shape the relationship between a company and these customers. The goal of the marketing relationship of customers is to optimize the interest of the customers and satisfy their needs. What is more, Taleghani, Vhirani and Mirrashed have mentioned in 2011 that the strategy of relationship marketing is based on creating, developing and maintaining relationships with customers. Through the brand building, Apple gradually establishes marketing relationship with customers. Customers start to pay attention to products of Apple and they are quite satisfied with these products. And with the brand being more meaningful and inspiring, customers are impressed with positive brand images of Apple. Gradually the brand of Apple has been identical for customers which help Apple to build the first step of marketing relationship with customers. And the second step for marketing relationship building is achieved by collecting customer profiles. Apple takes advantage of its customer profile to find their target customers, and to maintain brand loyalty. Through the information of customer profile, Apple knows exactly who bought their products, when did they buy the product and how many times did they buy the products. Depending on customer profiles it collects from these downloads of customers, Apple get a better understanding of its customers and can use these information to satisfy customers’ needs, thus maintaining brand loyalty and providing warm services according to customers’ needs. In all, the customer profile of Apple provides the knowledge needed to posit its target and potential customers and enable Apple to focus on marketing and branding efforts more effectively which finally help Apple to build marketing relationship with its customers. Thirdly, despite the innovative and amazing products of Apple, it also provides customers with the delicate services which help to enhance marketing relationship with customers. It has been said that Apple has five stages of service including approach, probe, present, listen and end. â€Å"Do not be manipulated by the machine but to manipulate machine yourself† is Apple’s customer-oriented concept to produce new products. In 2007, one month before the iPhone is officially on sale, Jobs asked developers to switch the phone’s plastic screen to tempered glass screen. This has solved the problem of the screen be scratched by keys. In addition, the Voiceover helps the blind to read texts and ever enter information. Apple always stands on the side of customers and think for them. These warm services and Apple’s caring about customers help Apple maintains brand loyalty of customers. By the three steps of establishing the brand of Apple, maintaining the loyalty of customers and enhancing connection between customers, Apple builds the marketing relationship with customers. Although Apple’s marketing strategies has been quite effective which make the brand of Apple known all around the world. While there still exists some problems in Apple’s marketing. First of all, Apple’s marketing is too dependent on the leadership of Jobs Steve. He gives the brand of Apple the name of fashion, innovation and esthetics. Depending on his public influence, many of his followers choose to buy the products of Apple. With the left of Jobs, the brand of Apple may face some challenges. Secondly, the price of Apple is too high among its competitors. Although most Apple’s customers are of high income or well educated, the high price of Apple also make Apple lose some customers since some other products can satisfy their needs with fair prices. Last but not least, Apple has a big competitor-Samsung. As a latecomer to the mobile phone industry, Samsung has defeated Motorolaï ¼Å'Nokia and other competitors to become the world’s second largest mobile phone maker. The competition between Apple and Samsung will challenge the brand value of Apple. 4. Conclusion To conclude, brand is of vital importance to a firm or an organization. A strong brand offers reliance for customers and thus becomes a link to maintain customers’ loyalty. Branding helps to make products different and can choose the target customers. Through branding, Apple builds the brand which establishes the first step of marketing relationship with customers. By collecting customer profiles, Apple knows better about its customers which help Apple to maintain brand loyalty of target customers. In addition, through the delicate services and innovative products, Apple enhances the marketing relationship with customers. In all, Apple builds the marketing relationship by three steps including establishing the brand of Apple, maintaining the loyalty of customers and enhancing connection between customers. Although Apple has successfully built its brand and has good relationship with customers, Apple still faces many challenges including the left of its famous leader, the high price of its products and the strong competitors. Reference Gronroos, Christian. (1997) ‘From marketing mix to relationship marketing-towards a paradigm shift in marketing’, Management Decision, 35/4, 322-339. Holt, D.B. & Cameron, D. (2010) Cultural Strategy: Using Innovative Ideologies to Build Breakthrough Brands, Oxford University Press. Kahney, Leander. (2012) ‘Apple: It’s All About the Brand’. [Online] Available at: http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/commentary/cultofmac/2002/12/56677 (Accessed: July 29, 2013) Kapoor, Avinash. & Kulshrestha, Chinmaya. (2011) Branding and sustainable competitive advantage: Building virtual presence. The United States of American: Business Science Reference. Kelle, K., L. (2009) ‘Building strong brands in a modern marketing communications environment’, Journal of Marketing Communications, 15:2-3, 139-155. Kotler, P. (1974) ‘Marketing during periods of shortage’, Journal of Marketing, 38(3), 20-29. Kumar,V.(2010).Customer Relationship Management. Published in Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing. Murdy, S. & Pike, S. (2012) ‘Perceptions of visitor relationship marketing opportunities by destination marketers: An importance-performance analyses, Tourism management, Volume 33, Issue 5. Reed, Brad. (2013) Apple is still the world’s most valuable brand. [Online] Available at: http://bgr.com/2013/05/21/apple-brand-value-analysis/ (Accessed: July 29, 2013) Ries, Al. & Trout, Jack. (1994) The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing, Harper Business press. Taleghan, M., Chirani, Ebrahim. & Mirrashed, A. S. (2011) ‘A conceptuality approach to relationship marketing and customers loyalty to banks’, Journal of Applied Scientific Research, 1(11), pp2022-2025. Apple annual report 2008: Just how â€Å"different† and elite are Apple customers – socioeconomically, behaviorally, and attitudinally? (2008) Available at: http://technologyuser.com/2009/04/05/just-how-different-and-elite-are-apple-customers-socioeconomically-behaviorally-and-attitudinally/ (Accessed: July 29, 2013) The Apple iPhone: successes and challenges for the mobile industry (2008) Available at: http://www.nilofermerchant.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/iPhone-survey-whitepaper-v2.pdf (Accessed: July 29, 2013)

Biographical Interpretation Works In Relation Essay

Many literary works come across as hard for explanation, it’s been a problem since literature has been a main stay in society. Over time many styles of interpretation have been both approached and adapted by readers and critics alike. One of the most popular is the biographical interpretation. This is when a reader makes use of details regarding the life, times and works of an author as a means of solving interpretive problems. The biographical interpretation is a very good way to get inside the readers head because the past, and your past experiences are what shape your mind as it matures over time, even the smallest experience can make a decent sized impact on one’s thought process. Mark Twain is a good example of an author that has been analyzed, possibly even over analyzed. By every angle he has been looked at, most notably for his works on The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. If you were to read his book The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn without taking a look at any biographical pieces about Mark Twain you would undoubtedly not get as much out of the novel as you would in contrast, if you were to read the biography. To prove the point the help of the semi-biographical essay The Life of Samuel Clemens and the Reception of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn will be called upon throughout the essay. At the beginning of the biographical essay there is an excellent explanation of the personal side of Twain â€Å"the only clear picture is that Twain was a man of paradox† (pg. 19). The reason this excerpt fits the topic of biographical interpretation is because one key word within that quote, that key word being paradox. A paradox is a statement that seems contrary to common sense and yet is perhaps true. With The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn being the novel that we are taking a look at in contrast to the biographical side of Mark Twain this word, paradox, fits perfectly since there are paradoxes running throughout the novel. A good example of a paradox in the novel is from the mouth of Huck Finn himself: When it was dark I set by my campfire smoking, and feeling pretty satisfied; but by-and-by it got sort of lonesome, and so I went and set on the bank†¦ and counted the stars and drift-logs and rafts that come down, and then went to bed; there ain’t no better wa y to put in time when you are lonesome; you  can’t stay so, you soon get over it. (Pg. 62) The paradox that has been spoken by Huckleberry is that depression and lonesomeness can be slept away. Which when first heard can be looked over and seen as straight out nonsense. However if it is thought about closely most people that are depressed can be get a quick fix from what makes them depressed by sleeping through it as much as they can, sort of like sleep and relaxation was the drug of it’s time. It may sound inconceivable now, but in the era that The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was penned the idea of sleeping, or rather lounging around for days was not that inconceivable because they did not live the busy lifestyle in which we live in current time. This is just one of many paradoxes throughout the book that reflect the author in a great way due to the fact that he was known as a living paradox because of the way he lived his life. For a man that made money out of writing about adventures of rafting down the Mississippi and barely getting by money wise seem so interesting. But grew up living in Connecticut for a good amount of time in his life and also seeking to be filthy rich, and have no worries is most likely the biggest paradox of his life. Another way that the book of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn can be looked at from a biographical perspective and make sense is the fact that the main characters in the novel have a very similar background as to which they grew up in. In a paragraph written by an African American professor of eastern studies and a writer of African-American folktales and poetry. A man by the name of Julius Lester speaks of the relationship between Huck, Tom, and Mark Twain himself in a very unique manner. Just after he speaks of how he does not recollect ever reading the writings of Mark Twain, but then says something to the effect of what American child hasn’t read the tales of Huck and Tom so maybe he has, but the literature was not that significant to his life. What Lester has to say is something that most people taking the biographical interpretation approach should use as an approach to all authors in relation to the characters they write of: I do have an emotional memory of going to H annibal, Missouri with my parents when I was eight or nine, and visiting the two-story frame house where Mark Twain lived as a boy-where Huck and Tom lived as boys. (Pg. 341, Morality and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) This is a great comment because when you take a novel and  try and put a biographical interpretation onto that novel you need to take a very close look at the characters and their relation to the author. That is the mainstay of the biographical interpretation, how the characters are at all a parallel to the author. With Mark Twain himself growing up for part of his life on the Mississippi it gave him great knowledge of what he was talking about, and it gave him the roots of the characters that are now notable American icons. Him having the knowledge of the Mississippi, and of southern life in America at that time influenced the characters and the novel infinitely. Whether it is a satirical look at the way American life was at that time is a whole different essay. With all of this in mind it can be said that he sure lived the life of Huck and Tom whether it be on a lower level, or a parallel these characters and Mark Twain are one in the same. These are only a few examples of how the biographical interpretation of a novel is a very reliable approach to analyzing literature as long as you know that the biographical information is accurate. Doing this will also make the novel much more enjoyable because if you read the biographical essay, paragraph, novel, etc. Then you will be able to go along the book and be able to not look down upon the book, but look more for the reason that that author had said what he said, and what he really meant by it. It is about looking from the inside and looking out at the novel for the reasons behind what was said, instead of looking into the novel for the reasons to not read the book altogether

Unit 3 Theoretical Criminology Anomie Theory Essay

Unit 3 Theoretical Criminology Anomie Theory - Essay Example Indeed, the above fact can be used to account for white-collar crime. Of interesting to note is that mertonian approaches leaned towards white-collar crime and the anomie theory was used in explaining this kind of crime. This is based on the fact that the theory tends to explain why crime occurs and as such this can be used to explain why there is occurrence of white collar crime. Notably, criminals adopting cultural endorsed objective or goals of financial success illegally mainly characterize white-collar crime. Most white-collar crimes are related to the need of the offenders to gain money or other stuffs in order to fit in particular social classes or culture. This is more seen in criminals who are out there to become richer than before. As such, social and cultural factors, as considered by Merton, influence white collar jobs (Gomme 56). To emphasize on this, some researches carried out have showed that most convicted white collar criminals were caught while still working and they claim that they were trying to achieve economic success through illegal means (Akers and Sellers 45). As such, they can be said to be innovators given that at the time of committing crime they were after economic success. Innovators are considered to be those individuals who continually embrace material and monetary success as a goal to follow; however, they turn to criminal activities to achieve this success. Street gangs are groups formed mainly youth who are not capable of obtaining what they require through conventional means. Indeed, through these streets groups, the individuals find money and friendship and most of what they desire. Using strain theory, one may attempt to explain how various factors such as homelessness, poverty, lack of opportunity and parenting largely contribute to the formation of crime and crime (Warner and Flower 511). In relation to

Individual Marketing Strategy Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Individual Marketing Strategy Report - Essay Example To combat this growing consumer discontent with Apple’s iPhone, it is recommended that Apple redesign its promotional strategies to include lifestyle-relevant celebrity endorsers, change its current pricing structure, and emphasise more on the tangible product benefits as part of the marketing mix to regain competitive advantages and revenue growth. Apple must first, however, identify the psychological and sociological characteristics of its primary profitable market segment, the Achiever group, to accomplish gains in restoring the brand’s reputation. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................ 2.0 Situational analysis..................................................................................................... 2.1 PEST analysis................................................................................................. 2.2 SWOT analysis..................... .......................................................................... 3.0 Differential advantage................................................................................................. ... ..... 5.2 Marketing strategies and programmes............................................................. 6.0 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... References 1.0 Introduction Research in Motion (RIM), now appropriately renamed as Blackberry, had dominated the mobile phone market between 2000 and 2005, being an innovator and pioneer in a product category that was in its technological infancy and introductory period along the product life cycle. With the release of RIM’s Blackberry 957, one of the world’s first smartphones, Research in Motion was able to define the product category and gain first mover advantages, something achievable through technology leadership and the ability to corner the market in a specific product category (Agarwal and Gort 2001). Up until 2006, when Research in Motion launched its Blackberry Pearl 8100 (the first smartphone with camera capabilities and othe r functional features found on today’s smartphones), RIM was considered to be the foremost expert in mobile telephony virtually untouchable by potential new market entrants for its technological leadership. However, Apple Inc. developed its first version of the Apple iPhone, a revolutionary mobile telephone technology that encompassed multi-functional features and benefits ranging from streaming video capabilities to Internet Wi-Fi connectivity capacity. The innovative features included in the first and subsequent versions of the Apple iPhone quickly seized market share from the previous market leader, Research in Motion, rapidly building market segment loyalty for Apple. Subsequent versions of the iPhone were released yearly following 2007, which now include the Apple iPhone 5 that was just

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Corporate governance in the uk - Coursework Example Economists have pointed out that banking sector failure in the UK was triggered by a chain of actions; for example, corporate governance malpractices like above average remuneration package for directors, lack of shareholders’ engagement, increase in transient ownership, absence of risk measurement mechanisms and misrepresentation of financial performance of the firm have contributed significantly to sub-prime mortgage crisis in the USA which was followed by a global financial crisis in 2008. The global financial crisis caused systematic risks for the UK banks which were linked with the USA and other global financial market. Northern Rock bank was the first victim of banking crisis in the UK, overreliance on wholesale funding and lack of regulatory control were the reasons behind the failure of Northern Rock bank. Industry analysts have pointed out that, the UK banking sector crisis was triggered by four types of corporate governance failures, such as inefficient risk management, above average remuneration for top level executives, lack of shareholder engagement and lack of board qualification. Next section will discuss the contribution of these four issues to the financial crisis in the UK. Managing risk is an essential part of corporate governance policy of banks in the UK. Investors and shareholders decide on the investment strategy on the basis of the level of risk associated with a particular investment decision. Research scholars have proposed recommendations, in the form of Cadbury report, Greenbury report and Turnbul report, in order to address the risk management issues related to corporate governance policy of companies in the UK. Combined code and Basel II agreements were the guiding criteria for banks to formulate risk management strategies but these guidelines were not sufficient for them to avoid financial crisis which resulted from sovereign debt crisis. Although

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

Management - Essay Example Refreezing is about eh stabling the change process. Mainly the organization looks to complete the refreezing stage through organizational norms, culture and structures (Carnall, 1994, p. 351). Organizational Level One of the most famous analytical models that describe the process of change at an organizational level has been developed by Harold J. Leavitt. According to Leavitt organizations are like multivariate systems that have four most important variables such as the structure, goal, technology and players (Moore, 1963, p. 141). According to Leavitt structure is the structure of authority, communication and responsibility and work relations. The players are the employees of the organization; Technology is the techniques and equipments that are used by the players or employees of an organization to achieve desired organizational goal. Leavitt considered goal as â€Å"la raison d’etre† of an organization. Leavitt believed that organizational goal is the rationale that complements the functioning and the existence of the organization. Leavitt believed that these variables lead to organizational change. The core concept model was represented by the strong relation and interdependence between the four variables leading to main consequences: One of the variables can be modified to inflict desirable changes in the other type of variable. The change of one variable may quite possibly lead to some unwanted and unexpected changes in the other variables (Ridley, 2008, p. 301). Researchers related to the field of organizational science and psychology however felt that the theory proposed by Lewin was a little dispersed and may require some modification so that the organizational... The study has been conducted in order to analyze the process of organizational change and development. Organization change can be defined as a transformation phase than an organization goes through when the structure and strategies of an organization is altered. The study looks to describe in the modern day business environment an organization has to go through a process of change not only to gain competitive advantage but also for ht mere survival. The study shows the role of the managers as a change agent. Organizational development can be defined as the answer to the organizational that is conducted to modify the norms, values and attitudes and structure of an organization. There are several inadequate processes of organizational change and development. Some of the essential factors need to be monitored before implanting organizational change within the firm. The present study looks to provide a brief over view of the organizational change and development process. During the course of study organizational change from and individual and organizational perspective has been analyzed. Theoretical and analytical models such as the Lewin’s three sate model, Harold J. Leavitt model of change and also model suggested by model suggested that Jeanne Watson, Ronald Lippit and Bruce Westley; which also happens to be a modified version of the three stage model proposed by Lewin has been presented. Also the process of organizational change implementation has been provided.

Verizon Wireless Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Verizon Wireless - Case Study Example These are its high quality nationwide wireless network, technological choice of CDMA instead of GSM, constant monitoring of its products and services, and provision of the best product to the customer through an automated software which analyzes customers' calling habits. The company's investment in building a system which takes into consideration the customer service capabilities and coverage has important implications on the company's long-term cost structure. Through these investments, the company is able to provide the best for its clients thereby minimizing churn. The case states that customer loyalty is very important as the acquisition of a customer totals to $300 to $400 each and it takes six to eight months before this cost of customer acquisition is recouped by a business organization. Thus, when a customer stays longer in a service provider, this will mean that the cost of acquisition is covered while the company will not be spending so much in order to acquire new ones. Loyalty also has important implications for a company. If customers are loyal, they tend to spread it to word of mouth allowing the companies not to spend too much on other promotional activities like television advertising. This, in time, reduces the acquisition cost for a business organization. ... This business level strategy is complemented by the functional strategies of quality, efficiency, and responsiveness to customer. The company has invested in quality by checking its signals in nationwide locations through its Test Men as well as having the largest coverage, clearer connections, and fewer dropped calls. Efficiency is also ensured through the employment of CDMA technology which functions better than its GSM counterpart. The company also proves its commitment to customer responsiveness through its consistent communication with clients offering them with the best plans that suit their calling habits. These strengths allow Verizon Wireless to have a competitive advantage in the wireless business. It should be noted that having a nationwide coverage is very hard to be replicated by another player since it will call for a massive outlay of investment in its part. As Verizon has already been operating in this nationwide network, it also enjoys economies of scale which drives down cost significantly. Weaknesses: Verizon Wireless churn rate is 0.87%. Through lower than its competitors, this still indicate that the company is not able to serve all of its clients and meet their requirements. The company should aim and strive to bring down the churn rate to 0% since these aggravated customers through word of mouth can ruin the image of the company which is detrimental in the long run Opportunities: The quality, efficiency, and customer responsiveness can be used by Verizon in order to allow it to go after its rival's customers. It should be noted that the company does not have the most number of subscribers. It can earn more clients through a more intensive

Negotiation strategies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Negotiation strategies - Assignment Example Steve Jobs used some of these tips in his email negotiation. Steve Jobs applied the understand importance of negotiation tip. From the emails, Steve Jobs engaged into a phone call conversation without haste with Murdoch. Despite his busy schedule, he understood that some bargains are too significant to avoid. He needed all the major publishers, including Harper Collins, to show his eBooks. Further, Steve Jobs also understood the importance of caving on what he felt he required with one publisher. He as well understood that if other potential publishers found out, they would withdraw from the deal. The deal was, therefore, both important in itself and the consequence it could have on other deals. Secondly, Steve Jobs used the tip of showing both kinds of value. Jobs exhibited two different types of value while communicating to his negotiating partner via email. One of his values was positive while the other one was negative. For the positive value, he emphasized benefits that Harper Collins publisher would earn from the deal. For instance, Steve Jobs wrote on his email conversation praising Apple Company. He stated that it was the only publisher capable of during that time that could cause serious impacts despite being in a position to work with at least four of the six big publishers available and already signed up. On Jobs positive kind of value, he hands HarperCollins a tool for opposing Amazon domination of the publishing industry. However, he gives a hint claiming that should HarperCollins fail to keep with the market dynamics, its competitors may shut it down through stiff competition. Therefore, he  asks Harpers wisely to upgrade its publishing systems in order to keep up with the competition and the market demands. Finally, Steve Jobs employed the negotiation tip of laying out reality. He applies coup de grace that relates to the first tip. Steve Jobs lays

Douglas Coupland, Generation X Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Douglas Coupland, Generation X - Essay Example It means that the American society is open for changes and innovations, unlike the Canadian society, which rejected the book at first. Generation X is positioned by Coupland as a distracted youth, free of moral stereotypes and prejudices. Moreover, Coupland claims that the Canadian dimension of literature does not present a blur of regional and national identity. This claim of the author plays an important role in the modern globalized, internationally blurred context. Moreover, it is argued that Generation X is a future prospect of the future social development of the contemporaries in technologically savvy world, freed from social bounds. Xers and their essence A tendency of escape from the strict bonds of the society is one of the most crucial issues of the novel. In other words, Coupland appeals for freedom and independence of the contemporaries. There is nothing, but individuals, who are technologically savvy and rigorous. A contemporary society is a society of consumers and cur rent communication implies nothing more than commentaries to the actions of other individuals. There is no need for the main characters of the novel to live in compliance with worn-out moral norms and ways of behavior. The contemporaries are ready to call for their earlier lives. There is a massive appeal of the author for the modern society to discard stereotypical behaviors and escape from monotonous lives. On the other hand, there is no evident possibility to escape from a socially stable reality: â€Å"...the realization that the smiles that they wear in their daily lives are the same as the smiles worn by people who have been good-naturedly fleeced, but fleeced nonetheless and who are unable because of social convention to show their anger† (Coupland 1991, p. 7).   It is essential and interesting to notice, that such kind of unusual arguments and a new air for the development of the Canadian minds was not readily accepted by the latter. The author appeals for the remov al of consumerist stereotypes or any other standardized types of behavior. It is not appropriate and even ill-mannered for the contemporaries to think and to act in accordance with irrelevant stereotypes. Coupland underlines a widening gap of generations’ split and there is a need to bridge the gap. The only way to do it is to become â€Å"naked† individuals with clear minds and create the modern reality, which is between reality and cyber space. Unlike earlier years, modern social templates of behavior are not linear. It is evident, that the modern society is being developed in different directions, blurring the borders and static limits of diversified development. Therefore, one of the greatest dilemmas, parent-children relationships is described by Coupland in an unusual manner. Modern youth is confident and they do not want their parents to be confident instead of them. Parental â€Å"crowbars† cannot be applied to reshape the lives of their children, as it used to be many centuries ago. Divided sections of text underlines dualistic development of the modern life: the modernity is being developed in accordance with the laws of computer technologies: a bipolar system of the modern society development reiterates binary system of computer technologies. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to have emotional features of human beings and the main characters Andy, Dag, and Claire have remained sensual humane characters and not computerized machines. There is enough courage among these characters and they are able to abandon a well-structured world, designed by the worn-out social system for them for life, which has no structure, templates and purpose. The modern culture is being develope

Coffee Industry Essay Example for Free

Coffee Industry Essay People usually drink coffee to stay up while awake at night, besides that many people rely on coffee to get their day started. According to the New England Journal of Medicine, â€Å"Drinking coffee can lead to a longer life†; however, many consumers have no idea of the impact of habits on their coffee and coffee farmers around the globe, ethical issues of consumers with the industry is not fair; but to coffee farmers, the issues are human rights violations and use of child labor issues need to be addressed. To remedy this situation, the fair trade will hopefully improve the living conditions of some of the poorest people in the world through certified value and the change in the consumers choice. Coffee is one of the most valuable commodities in the world, most of the farmers in the form of small retail and come from developing countries, although the majority of coffee sales are in the America and Europe many people around the world rely on coffee to work and have a better life; however, to producing quality coffee, farmers have to work very hard though farmers receive very little money and the inequity of the coffee producing companies when they sell coffee. Working conditions of farmers in the plantations are very different, although they work hard , but it paid for exploitation, for example , in Guatemala , coffee pickers to harvest 100 pounds to get the minimum wage $ 3 per day (The Problem with Fair Trade Coffee 2010),farmers have to work overtime and do not earn extra money, so farmers use child labor for the production of coffee to save money and use these chemicals effect of the human body in order for a fast development of coffee sale on the market. Moreover, using the chemicals and the development of the coffee industry adversely affect habitat and species decline. In addition, forests are cut down to coffee production affects the environment and soil erosion. According to World Wildlife Fund (WWF), â€Å"converting forest to tea and coffee agriculture can also create erosion and soil loss† (WWF 2010) ; yet the farmers have no choice and/or the opportunity to change. According to the International Coffee Organization or ICO â€Å"Coffee production in 2012 was 144 611 000 bags, mostly from less developed countries such as, Brazil 50 826 000 bags. Vietnam 22 000 000 bags and Indonesia 12 730 000 bags â€Å" (ICO 2013), though coffee production is highly ranked in the world, but farmers still do not get enough money to pay for life, for example, Vietnam in 2012, producing nearly 30 % of world coffee production but the turnover is only 10 % of the total trade value obtained from the global industry, the main reason is due to their ability to improve processing of value and coffee products are limited, coffee roasting plants in countries with rates lower than 10%, when farmers sells 1kg of coffee beans, farmers gets about 2 dollars or an average price of one cup of coffee oversea, yet 1 kg of coffee can make 50 cups. In addition, the links between farmers and enterprises are not strong, the lack of information on farmers markets, so farmers often extorted. Moreover, the risk of crop failure is the fear of the coffee growers. Most of the profits from coffee for export processing enterprises, coffee farmers only enjoy a small percentage. That has caused insecurity for farmers. Solution to this problem is the fair trade. According to Wikimedia, Fair trade coffee is coffee that is certified as having been produced and marketed to a stated set of standards. Many Customers pay a higher price when buying coffee with the certification logo or brand in the Belief Furniture , by doing so, they are helping farmers in the Third World . In particular, the fair trade coffee movement gives a reasonable price to the Farmers who were being a low wage labor exploitation. However, achieve certification of fair trade, farmers must meet several conditions of production as farmers have to meet a large variety of production standards : there are limits on the use of child labor , pesticides , herbicides , genetically modified products , etc. With these standards met, both consumers and farmers can benefit, with farmers getting the sufficient amount of money for their products, and the consumers getting their product knowing it’s safe to consume and has no effect on the producers financially or ethnically. These farmers must cooperate with businesses to produce the certified products, such amounts received will be higher and the lives of the farmers would be better. In addition, consumers should choose certified products in the supermarket or the market as this will support and will be helpful for farmers. In conclusion, fair trading is the way for farmers and coffee producers to get a higher amount, and will change lives for the better. Therefore farmers should choose fair trade to ensure benefits and consumers should choose products that have been certified to support the farmers. Reference * The problem with Fair Trade Coffee. * Retrieved August 30, 2013, from http://www. ssireview. org/articles/entry/the_problem_with_fair_trade_coffee * Coffee Production and Labor * Retrieved August 30, 2013, from http://www. organicconsumers. org/starbucks/coffeelabor. htm * Fair Trade Coffee * Retrieved August 30, 2013, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Fair_trade_coffee * International Coffee Organization- EXPORTING COUNTRIES: TOTAL PRODUCTION * Retrieved August 30, 2013, from http://www. ico. org/prices/po. htm * Health and effect of Coffee. * Retrieved August 30, 2013, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Health_effects_of_coffee * Environmental Impacts of Coffee and Tea Production * Retrieved September 2, 2013 from http://www. hellogreentomorrow. com/blog/2010/11/environmental-impacts-of-coffee-and-tea-production.

Critical Theory in Sociology

Critical Theory in Sociology The critical theory is a social theory, which is known to criticise and trying to change society as a whole. The traditional theory only described and explained society. Theorists such as Max Horkheimer, T.W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Leo Lowenthal and Reich Fromm, were the main theorists who took part in the Frankfurt School, In Germany in the late 1920s at the institute fur Sozialforschung. The Frankfurts schools theory of society is very negative about how society runs, reasons for this is the increase in capitalism, and that societies social structure has been separated, (Swingewood 200, p. 130). Throughout the essay, there shall be more information about the Frankfurt school, and what they believed and wanted to change in society, also more information about what is critical theory and what it is critical of in society, also more information about the traditional theory. The work of Frankfurt school become very influential in the social sciences in the 1960s. Culture industry wor ked to put together the role of social struggles in the production and reproduction of society. Culture industry worked like an apparatus which brought together individuals and got them doing and thinking the same. The critical theory may be defined as a theory of setting humans free of human enslavement, and manipulation. Both Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno argued that critical theory is the theory of human emancipation based on free capitalist society, the bourgeoisies controlled the working class through manipulation of interests of politics, media, culture etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as a silent dominant force. The critical theory argues that there are various types of manipulation, such as; Ideological, this consists of justifying decisions made by enforcing ones thoughts onto another, secondly, Cultural, this consists of the attempt to commercialise to maintain the status quo of the working class. Finally the psychological manipulation which means that we are more interested in other peoples life and this is because of the decline of the father figure in many families. Horkheimer argued that a capitalist society can only be changed if it becomes more democratic is it could be that all conditions of social life that are controllable by human beings depend on real consensus in a rational society (Horkheimer 1982, 249-250). Horkheimer argued that the only way in which we could fix problems in society, was by introducing the critical theory. There are four main points for the Critical theory these are; Reflective, this refers to that facts can be revised separately from other things that we may have to learn such as values. Dialectical; this refers to humans understanding of the world changing as the world changes too. Critical; which refers to stating what is wrong with the current society, and coming up with reasonable ideas on how to change it. Immanent critique is the main support for critical theory.(Adorno, 1991) Critical theorists argued that Marx did not foresee some key developments on capitalist society. Especially, centralisation and various mechanisms of ideological, cultural and psychological domination, associated in particular with the development of a commercialised mass media. Critical theorists conclude that the working class was no longer the revolutionary agent foreseen by Marx. The only way in which theorists could change the way society was is by firstly stating what is wrong with the current society, has to identify the actors to change it and finally it has to provide achievable goals for social transformation. Any truly critical theory of society, Has as its object human beings as producers of their own historical form of life (Horkheimer, 1992, 21). Critical theorists have argued that humans need to become more aware of how science and other type of facts and knowledge work together in creating oppression.Critical theory identifies facts and everyday life as the foundation for human beings, in waiting that people will realise the power and their influences on their lives and be able to overcome them. Fredrick Taylor introduced science in the 19th century, Henry Ford among many other people was influenced by Fredrick Taylor by his ideas on how to improve and raise production. By being influenced by Fredrick, Henry Ford creating an assembly line. By doing this Ford was able to reduce hours and save money, at the same time produce more. This idea became very popular, companies were able to produce much more with less work due to the right machinery. Instrumental reason refers to the opening up of reliable modes of organisations, the critical theory criticises the instrumental reason. The reason which why critical theory is critical of instrumental reason is because it raises action, which means this would be a means to an end. The instrumental reason sees individuals as instruments instead of humans this was introduced by positivistic science. As mentioned before, in the concentration camps humans were not seen as humans, but they were seen as objects. (Swingewood, 2000). Another example of this could be the rise in tuition fees in 2010, this change would benefit large institutions, especially the government, however it does not benefit the people who would mostly experience the change of this such as students. Critical theory is also critical of mass culture, mass culture refers to individuals following and believing what the media say. An example of this can be such as girls believe it is always best to be slim. Culture industry refers to anything that gets in the way of freedom. The Frankfurt school gives us useful information about the process of how society changed from traditional culture and modernism in the arts to a mass produced media orientated society. Society has become much more media orientated as technology has become much more advanced, The traditional theory was originally known as the positivism theory, however, Horkheimer labelled the traditional theory. The traditional theory was based more on facts, the more facts we had about everything, the more knowledge we have. The traditional theory did not see people as humans, instead humans were looked at as things for example in the concentration camps individuals who died, were not looked at as humans dying, but a specimen. Unlike the critical theory, the traditional theory only explains how society is in the present time, where as the critical theory looks at society, what is wrong with it and aims to change it. Positivism functions ideologically, this is done by promoting passive behaviour. Habermas argued that a free society should let people communicate freely without anything getting in the way, when people can do so, this would be known as a free society. Positivists ignore the roles of humans in society, they tend to treat society as a natural process. Habermas did not agree with Adorno and Horkheimer views that they can identify what is wrong with society and change it, also change the whole technological interaction with nature (Habermas, 1971). Horkheimer continued to argue that critical theory should focus on society being complete, e.g. how society became how it is in the present time. He argued this could be done by bringing together major social sciences such as geography, economics, sociology, history, science etc (Bohman, 1996). Adorno and Horkheimers book Dialectic of Enlightenment, which is a text about critical theory, which explains what the Frankfurt School considered as the failure of Enlightenment, the book was published in 1944 in New York. It is one of the main core texts about Critical theory. In the book we can see how Enlightenment norms had turned into their opposite, how democracy had produced fascism and reason had produced unreason. In conclusion to the above, we can see that there are many different views on how society runs, and as we can see is whether society is fine the way it is, or what should be changed if its not. The critical theory is obviously critical of society as it is now, The critical theory is mainly critical of how society is in terms of exploitation of humans., especially jobs such as labour work. However, the critical theory can be negatively criticised as it always looks upon society negatively. Horkheimer argued that the a theory can only be critical if it is explanatory, therefore critical theory should successfully explain what is wrong with the current society and what is needed to make it right, (Bohman, 1996). As we can see, there are many factors that affect society, also we can how society brain washes individuals to thinking that they live in an equal society system.

History of Concepts of Racism

History of Concepts of Racism MaKayla Chandler Views of Racism Have you ever looked at a coin and observe the words E Pluribus Unum? This phrase translated means Out of Many, One When the United States of America was established, this phrase suggested that out of many states shall emerge a single unified nation . Over the years, this phrase has been nothing more than words.  America once prided itself on being the melting pot uniting many people, races, religions, and cultures. We were supposed to bind together to form a unified nation; however the concept of the melting pot is nothing more than a forgotten idea.  Retired U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski summed up her thoughts of the melting pot when she said, America is not a melting pot. It is a sizzling cauldron (Mikulski). Racism is still alive and breeding its infestations on the American people. America is supposed to be the land of opportunity, the country that promises freedom of choices. As stated in the National Anthem, America is the land of the free and the home of the brave. Americ a is the country where dreams can come true. If America has emerged as a single people and nation, why does racism still exist in the twentieth century? In history, racism has always been an issue around the world and still is a big issue today. The term racism was created by the Communist Party as propaganda as they took over Russia and the surround European nations. According the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the meaning of racism is a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. In simpler terms, it is a belief that a certain race believes they are the dominant race and should have better rights than another race. Racial discrimination is experienced across a wide spectrum of cultures, ethnic groups, and race. It happens passively when people exclude other people socially or have different views and experiences.  In its most serious manifestation, racial discrimination is observed in the behaviors and activities of people that embody hate, abuse, violence and even death. This is evident in the beating and rumored death o f John Smith. This event catapulted the 1967 Newark riots which sparked one of the deadliest civil disturbances of the 1960s. These riots accorded most major cities and over 100 deaths were reported. Many inner city neighborhoods in these cities were destroyed. Cory Booker, who was the second African-American to be elected to the Senate was quoted saying, You have to understand the Newark Riots a lot of people understand that the pain was the initial explosion of anger and alienation, but after that, the response, sending the National Guard troops a lot of violence was carried out and perpetrated by those who were allegedly coming here to protect residents. (Booker) As part of the U.S. history, racism dates back to the17th century with the Europeans arrival in North America.  Due to the idea to conquer this new land, came racism against Native Americans. The Europeans believed that the Native Americans were savages who needed to be civilized through Christianity and European culture.  My original convictions upon this subject have been confirmed by the course of events for several years, and experience is every day adding to their strength. That those tribes cannot exist surrounded by our settlements and in continual contact with our citizens is certain. They have neither the intelligence, the industry, the moral habits, nor the desire of improvement which are essential to any favorable change in their condition. Established in the midst of another and a superior race, and without appreciating the causes of their inferiority or seeking to control them, they must necessarily yield to the force of circumstances and ere long disappear. (Andrew Jackson).   During the same century arrived the slaves.  They were thought of as being uncivilized and where prosecuted by violence.  Even though slavery was outlawed, racism continued to grow and filtered its hatred toward the African-Americans.  I have a strong feeling of repugnance when I think of the Negro being made our political equal. And I would be glad if they could be colonized, sent to heaven, or got rid of in any decent way. (James Garfield) The issue of racism in the United States continues to be a heated topic even now.  Many people believe that the white people have more privileges or are treated better than any other race. In his autobiography, Malcolm X writes, Its like the Negro in America seeing the white man win all the time. Hes a professional gambler; he has all the cards and the odds stacked on his side, and he has always dealt to our people from the bottom of the deck. (Malcolm X) It is viewed Many riots and protests have happened because of this topic of racism and unequal rights.  There has been a rise of protest when president Trump was elected into office.  Many people have blamed Trump for causing a rise in racism, do to his campaigns on the topic of immigrants and racial comments.  For example a Latino woman say, Donald Trumps hate speech against Latinos seems to be emboldening white Americans racism.(Vasquez).  Many people believe that whites cannot or will never experience racism, Its literally impossible to be racist to a white person.(Krishnan), says Manisha Krishnan who is a writer.  Is there revers racism? There are other races that believe they are more superior to the white race, so sure there is reverse racism, maybe whites do not face it as much or recognized but there is, especially in other countries. Racism is a topic that still hasnt been resolved, Joe Holt, a Contributor says This country has a long and relatively ignored history of racial di scrimination. (Holt). The topic of racism must be addressed and dealt with. No human being should ever feel like they are not equal or less important than another human being. The American views and prejudice on race, culture, or ethnic groups needs to be demised. An anti-racism activist and educator on the psychology of racism, Jane Elliott said, There is no such thing as multiple races, there is only one race and that is the human race.(Elliott).  Racism comes in different forms, like unequal rights, pay, service, or respect.  No one should not be judged or treated differently by the color of their skin, culture, or their beliefs.  Humans need to look beyond the trivial aspects of racism and treat people as they want to be treated.

Comparison of the Presentation of the Characters Jay Gatsby and Dick Di

Comparison of the Presentation of the Characters Jay Gatsby and Dick Diver from The Great Gatsby   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  F. Scott Fitzgerald is known as a writer who chronicled his times. This work has been critically acclaimed for portraying the sentiments of the American people during the 1920s and 1930s. ‘The Great Gatsby’ was written in 1924, whilst the Fitzgeralds were staying on the French Riviera, and ‘Tender is the Night’ was written nearly ten years later, is set on, among other places, the Riviera. There are very interesting aspects of these works, such as the way Fitzgerald treats his so-called heroes, and to what extent we can call them heroic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gatsby and Diver are both presented as wealthy men leading privileged lives. ‘The Great Gatsby’ was written before the Depression, and the optimism and faith in the power of money within the novel demonstrates this belief that people had. Notably, it is the characters’ faith in riches, and not Fitzgerald’s own. Gatsby is a self-made millionaire, making his money through bootlegging. He has acquired vast amounts of money, and believes that this money will help persuade Daisy to love him and leave Tom. This is illustrated in Chapter five when Daisy is shown around Gatsby’s mansion at his request. He shows her every detail, through from the gardens to his shirts and ‘he revalued everything in his house according to the measure of response it drew from her well-loved eyes’. Gatsby sees his money and possessions as wonderful things, but they are also more than that, they are a means to an end, the end being Daisy. He bough the house because of where it was in relation to Daisy (across the bay), and he held the most amazing parties in the hope that Daisy, or someone that knew Daisy would come. Gatsby, in effect, devoted his whole life to the search for Daisy, and his money is a tool to help him find his love.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diver’s attitude to money is very much a contrast to this. Money to him does not represent freedom and choice, but a bind that ties him and constricts him. Diver is conscious through the whole novel that he himself is not the financially dominant member of his marriage, but Nicole, with her seemingly endless riches. ‘Tender is the Night’ is written after the Wall Street Crash and during the Depression, but Fitzgerald has moved his characters away from the Depression of the United States to the French Riviera... ... ideal. Again and again, Fitzgerald underlines the importance of faith and hope, without which America and the American Dream mean nothing, and it is impossible to survive without. Diver and Gatsby can both be seen as the failure of the American Dream, and thus that the America that was supposed to be a place where everything is possible, where freedom and liberty come above all else, is failing herself. In Jay Gatsby and Dick Diver F. Scott Fitzgerald has presented us with tow men who should not fail, who, if there is any justice in the world, should succeed in what they do. However, they do not. Granted, they are not perfect, but they are more heroic and noble that the other characters they are surrounded with. The reason they do not survive is because they are old-fashioned men, with old fashioned, romantic ideals, and they are destroyed by the cruelty and superficiality of modern America. Fitzgerald does not paint a very reassuring picture of his home country, and these two novels display his personal fears about American society. ‘Tender is the Night’ and ‘The Great Gatsby’ are two novels grasping the mood of the moment, and Gatsby and Diver are two men who cannot keep up. Comparison of the Presentation of the Characters Jay Gatsby and Dick Di Comparison of the Presentation of the Characters Jay Gatsby and Dick Diver from The Great Gatsby   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  F. Scott Fitzgerald is known as a writer who chronicled his times. This work has been critically acclaimed for portraying the sentiments of the American people during the 1920s and 1930s. ‘The Great Gatsby’ was written in 1924, whilst the Fitzgeralds were staying on the French Riviera, and ‘Tender is the Night’ was written nearly ten years later, is set on, among other places, the Riviera. There are very interesting aspects of these works, such as the way Fitzgerald treats his so-called heroes, and to what extent we can call them heroic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gatsby and Diver are both presented as wealthy men leading privileged lives. ‘The Great Gatsby’ was written before the Depression, and the optimism and faith in the power of money within the novel demonstrates this belief that people had. Notably, it is the characters’ faith in riches, and not Fitzgerald’s own. Gatsby is a self-made millionaire, making his money through bootlegging. He has acquired vast amounts of money, and believes that this money will help persuade Daisy to love him and leave Tom. This is illustrated in Chapter five when Daisy is shown around Gatsby’s mansion at his request. He shows her every detail, through from the gardens to his shirts and ‘he revalued everything in his house according to the measure of response it drew from her well-loved eyes’. Gatsby sees his money and possessions as wonderful things, but they are also more than that, they are a means to an end, the end being Daisy. He bough the house because of where it was in relation to Daisy (across the bay), and he held the most amazing parties in the hope that Daisy, or someone that knew Daisy would come. Gatsby, in effect, devoted his whole life to the search for Daisy, and his money is a tool to help him find his love.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diver’s attitude to money is very much a contrast to this. Money to him does not represent freedom and choice, but a bind that ties him and constricts him. Diver is conscious through the whole novel that he himself is not the financially dominant member of his marriage, but Nicole, with her seemingly endless riches. ‘Tender is the Night’ is written after the Wall Street Crash and during the Depression, but Fitzgerald has moved his characters away from the Depression of the United States to the French Riviera... ... ideal. Again and again, Fitzgerald underlines the importance of faith and hope, without which America and the American Dream mean nothing, and it is impossible to survive without. Diver and Gatsby can both be seen as the failure of the American Dream, and thus that the America that was supposed to be a place where everything is possible, where freedom and liberty come above all else, is failing herself. In Jay Gatsby and Dick Diver F. Scott Fitzgerald has presented us with tow men who should not fail, who, if there is any justice in the world, should succeed in what they do. However, they do not. Granted, they are not perfect, but they are more heroic and noble that the other characters they are surrounded with. The reason they do not survive is because they are old-fashioned men, with old fashioned, romantic ideals, and they are destroyed by the cruelty and superficiality of modern America. Fitzgerald does not paint a very reassuring picture of his home country, and these two novels display his personal fears about American society. ‘Tender is the Night’ and ‘The Great Gatsby’ are two novels grasping the mood of the moment, and Gatsby and Diver are two men who cannot keep up.

Emergency Contraception Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Emergency Contraception There are many myths surrounding the use of emergency contraception. The question of what it is and when to use it is just a fraction of the controversy surrounding this arguably new practice. Emergency contraception is a method of preventing pregnancy after the act of unprotected sexual intercourse. It does not protect against sexually transmitted diseases. However, emergency contraception can not be obtained without a prescription. Why does the US government not trust women with the choice of making sure they do not get pregnant after having unprotected sex? If abortion is a choice and abortion terminates a life, why can women not have the choice to make sure they do not need an abortion? What is wrong with preventing an unwanted pregnancy? There are two types of emergency contraception, pills (ECP's) or copper T intrauterine devices (IUD). There are two distinct pill types, the brand name "Preven" and the brand name "Plan B". Preven contains the same hormones as regular birth control, estrogen and progestin. (1) It causes more instances of nausea and vomiting than Plan Bs, and decreases the chances of pregnancy by 75%. However, Preven can be used as an ongoing form of birth control. Plan B only contains the hormone progestin. It is more effective, decreasing chances of pregnancy by 89%, and has less of a chance for side effects. (1) These pills can be taken immediately after the sex, or up to 72 hours later. (2). The other form of emergency contraception, IUD, can be inserted up to five days after the unprotected sex and is more effective than the pills (99% decreased chance of pregnancy). (1) An IUD can be left in for up to 10 years as a form of birth control, but in some cases can lead to pe... ...e. The American government still denies the request for these to be readily available for American women. Why is this so? In a country where abortion is such a moral issue, you would think that an alternative to having to end a life would be widely welcomed by all sides of the issue. WWW Sources 1) emergency contraception at princeton http://ec.princeton.edu/info/eciud.html 2) teen forum on ec, myth/fact based site http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f03/web1/www.cfoc.org/3_teen/3_emergency.cfm 3) publication paper, stand on emergency contraception http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f03/web1/www.amwa-doc.org 4) ec connection, valuable resource http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f03/web1/www.ecconnection.org 5) plannedparenthood, good price list http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f03/web1/www.plannedparenthood.com

Meniscal Injuries :: essays research papers

The meniscus is one of the most commonly injured structures in the knee. Meniscal injuries can occur in any age group, but causes are somewhat different for each age group. In younger people, the meniscus is fairly tough and rubbery, and tears usually occur as a result of a fairly forceful twisting injury. In the younger age group, meniscal tears are more likely to be caused by athletic activity (Sutton, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In older people, the meniscus grows weaker with age. The tissue that makes up the meniscus becomes degenerative and much easier to tear. Meniscal injuries in older people occur as a result of a fairly minor injury, even from the up and down motion of squatting. Degenerative tears of the meniscus are commonly seen as a part of the overall condition of osteoarthritis of the knee in the older population. In many cases, there is no one associated injury to the knee that leads to meniscal tears (Sutton, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to understand how the menisci can be injured, you must understand the basic anatomy of the menisci and why they are important. The menisci are two oval (semilunar) fibrocartilages that deepen the articular facets of the tibia and cushion any stresses placed on the knee joint. They enhance the total stability of the knee, assist in the control of normal knee motion, and provide shock absorption against compression forces between the tibia and the femur (Booher, 2000). Articular cartilage covers the ends of the bones that make up the joint. The articular cartilage surface is a tough, very slick material that allows the surfaces to slide against one another without damage to either surface. This ability of the meniscus to spread out the force on the joint surfaces as we walk is important because it protects the articular cartilage from excessive forces occurring in any one area on the joint surface, leading to degeneration over time (Sutton, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Blood is supplied to each meniscus by the medial genicular artery. Each meniscus can be divided into three circumferential zones: the red-red zone is the outer or peripheral one third and has a good vascular supply; the red-white zone is the middle one third and has a minimal blood supply; and the white-white zone on the inner one third is avascular (Arnheim,1997).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The medial meniscus is larger and more oval or C-shaped in the outline than the lateral meniscus. The medial cartilage is also more firmly fixed to the tibia and the capsule than the lateral meniscus; as a result, it is much more frequently injured than the lateral cartilage.

Factors Affecting Infant Feeding Practices of Mothers

A STUDY ON FACTORS AFFECTING INFANT FEEDING PRACTICES OF MOTHERS IN THE PHILIPPINESSantos, Samuel Edelson Pingol, Aaron Paul Villanueva, Lovely Ann Bermas, Mhelrick Andrew Brecia, Froyland Miguel Faustino, Donald Bulacan State University BSECE 2A Introduction Every day, as many as 4,000 infants and young children die worldwide because they are not breastfed. According to UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), it is because their mothers are not empowered with adequate knowledge about breastfeeding and do not receive enough motivation and support. Babies, their mothers, their families, their community, their environment, even the economy of the country in which they live, all benefit from breastfeeding. This research is generally about breastfeeding: its benefits and significance to infant nutrition and factors that makes impact on breastfeeding; the practices in the Philippines that affect breastfeeding; and analyses by organizations concerned in breastfeeding. The given timeframe for the group research is the month of July and some weeks of August. The group decided to use a topic about health and wellness since nutrition is celebrated in that month. Another reason that encouraged pursuing the topic is that the world has celebrated its 20th Annual Breastfeeding Week last August 1-7, 2012 making the research timely. Abstract The objective of conducting this study is to evaluate the breast feeding practices adopted by women in the Philippines, and to show factors affecting time of initiation of breast feeding, age of weaning, and food given to the baby other than breast milk. It aimed to describe the elements affecting breastfeeding and to find out the significant relationship between breastfeeding and health of the child. The breast feeding practices adopted in terms of duration, frequency, exclusiveness of breast feeding and weaning have great impact on complete physical, mental and psycho-social development of the child. The superiority of breast milk compared to other types of milk for the nourishment of the human infant offering better health benefits. Early childhood is characterized by rapid growth, maturation of tissues and remodeling of organs. Breastfeeding is the optimal method for feeding infants. All the nutritional needs for most of these children are provided by breast milk in the right amounts and duration. Exclusive breast feeding was practiced by 40% of the mothers for first six month of life. The data obtained were analyzed using percentiles. Although the findings indicated that 34% of the mothers practiced breastfeeding and 84% supplemented with complementary foods, only 40% practiced exclusive breastfeeding. This study emphasizes the need of breast feeding education program regarding the duration of exclusive breast feeding. In comparison between rural and urban countries, studies have found out that mothers from rural areas have higher rates of breastfeeding than urban mothers. Another concept of the study is about the factors that affect breastfeeding patterns of mothers. These are demographic, socioeconomic and health service factors. Apart from breastfeeding, the research prior discussed about the loads of benefits people can get from breastfeeding and breast milk. There are psychological, health and contraceptive benefits one could get through breastfeeding and breast milk. To all infants, specifically Filipino children, should have the best protective ways against infection and malnutrition through exclusive breastfeeding. I. Breast milk: The most suitable food for human newborn A. Benefits of Breastfeeding 1. Emotional Health 2. Protective Action 3. Anti-infective properties of breast milk 4. Psychological profit 5. Effective contraception B. Formula Feeding II. Practices in the Philippines that contribute to problem of breastfeeding A. Duration (short) of breastfeeding in the Philippines B. Deprivation of beneficial effects of colostrum due to delayed breastfeeding III. Literature Review A. Breastfeeding and Supplementary Feeding 1. Breastfeeding in rural countries . Breastfeeding in developed countries B. WHO Recommendations 1. WHO Code (Definition of Terms) 2. DOH (Philippines) C. Factors Influencing duration of breastfeeding 1. Demographic Factors a. Mother’s age b. Parity c. Subsequent pregnancy d. Birth order of child e. Sex of the child f. Residence 2. Socioeconomic Factors a. Mother’s Education b. Mother’s Occupation c. Father’s Education d. Household economic statu s 3. Health Service Factors a. Antenatal care visits b. Place of delivery and mode of delivery c. Advice from health personnel 4. Conceptual Framework IV. Personal Overview and Conclusion Breast milk: The most suitable food for human newborn. The benefits of breastfeeding There are loads of benefits we can get from the natural way of giving food to babies. It can be emotional, physical, psychological and economical. Breastfeeding contribute to emotional health. Babies and mothers who gave birth recently are quite emotional persons. Being sensitive is a natural effect that occurs after giving birth and babies are still delicate up to the time they are still crying a lot. According to Gerber [1], â€Å"from birth up to 6 months of age and beyond, breast milk is still the best milk mother’s can give to their babies. The best nutrition they can give at the same time having these advantages: Preventing allergies and infections by providing natural immunities; Speeding up the recovery of the uterus; decreasing intestinal problems for babies; and promoting psychological and emotional insurance for both moms and babies. † Breastfeeding executes protective action. Breast milk can provide protective action to infants. These are immunities and colostrums. According to Cocabo and Kin [3], ‘through antibodies found in breast milk, mothers can ensure protection from immunization. Breastfeeding naturally promotes proper nutrition for the babies. ’ â€Å"Breast milk contains infection fighting antibodies from the mother, and breastfed babies are believed to be at a reduced risk for many acute and chromatic infections early in life. The cholesterol content is also high in human milk and very low in formulas. Cholesterol promotes brain growth and provides the building blocks of hormones, vitamin D and intestinal bite† [4 p. 2]. 1] Gerber, â€Å"Some notes on breastfeeding†, Countdown: Nine Months to a Perfect Delivery, vol. 1, no. 1, 2004, pp. 31 [3] S. Cocabo and P. Kin, â€Å"Childcare: the first 3 years†, Your Health Guide: The Family Wealth, Medimarketing, Inc. , Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines, 1994, pp. 26 [4] Medicine Net, Breastfeeding and formula feeding, Medicine Net, 1996, p. 2 [Online]. Availab le: http://www. medicinenet. com [Accessed: 18 July 2012] â€Å"Breast milk is best for your baby and the earlier he begins breastfeeding, the better. It has all the right nutrients at the right amounts. It costs nothing and helps you get back in shape. The first week after delivery, your breasts will produce colostrum – a thick, yellowish milk that is high in protein but very low in fat than actual breast milk. It also contains antibodies† [5 p. 23]. And according to Paraz [8], high-quality human capital may depend on mothers’ effort to breast feed their children. Health expenditures are lessened through breastfeeding, resulting to an organized health system. Breast milk contains anti-infective properties. Aside from immunity, breastfeeding has contents that can establish strong relationship between mother and child. Another one is that it can avoid pre- menopausal breast cancer. â€Å"If a multinational company develop a product that was a nutritionally balanced and delicious food, a wonder drug that both prevented and treated disease, cost almost nothing to produce and could be delivered in quantities controlled by the consumer’s needs, the very announcement of their find would send their shares rocketing to the top of the stock market. Women have been producing such miraculous substance, breast milk, since the beginning of human existence† [7 p. 1]. Breast milk gives psychological profit. Apart from emotions, the way mothers think, especially moms who gave birth on their first child, are vulnerable. They are experiencing adjustments on their lifestyle and even on their minds. The website Psychology today [2] says that, ‘the link between breastfeeding and anxiety decrease could serve as a source of sanity-preserver. The attention of nourishing of a child can appear remarkable in the best of situations. If a first-hand mother’s stress system where to boost in full-throttle every while the child cries or spits-up, motherhood can seem even more psychologically stimulating than it is. [2] PT Staff, â€Å"The benefits of breastfeeding†, Psychology Today, 01 January 1996 [Online]. Available: http://www. psychologytoday. com/articles/199601/the-benefits-breast-feeding [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [5] Wyeth, â€Å"Breast milk: The ideal first food†, Pampering Baby with Care: Your Baby Care Guide, Wyeth Nutrition, pp. 23, pp. 25 [7] The Quote Garden, â₠¬Å"Breastfeeding†, 1998, p. 1 [Online] Available: http://www. quotegarden. com/breastfeeding. html [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [8] Carisa Paraz, â€Å"Breastfeeding can cut infant deaths†, Medical Observer: Passing Problem, no. , August 2007, pp. 8 Breastfeeding is an effective contraceptive. Parents usually wait for a year or more before making another child. But they cannot get rid of having coital activities with one another hence, they do family planning and make use of contraceptives. One form of a natural contraceptive is breastfeeding. The simplest way of contraception is Lactational Amenorrhea Method. It doesn’t require counting or any contraceptive method. For it to be successful, Epigee [6] suggests that ‘breastfeeding should be ASAP (as soon as possible), frequent, uninterrupted and exclusive. ’ As your baby suckles, nerve impulses travel through your body and are received by your brain. This signal the production of a hormone called prolacti n, which works to inhibit both FsH (Follicle stimulating Hormone) and GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone). As a result, ovulation does not occur and menstruation stops, making it almost possible to become pregnant’ [6]. Formula feeding There are cases that mothers are advised not to breastfeed. It could be a medical or a personal reason. However, there is an option for mothers that they can use if ever breast milk is not offered. Based on Wyeth Nutrition [5 p. 5], â€Å"prepared milk products are good replacement for breast milk. A paediatrician will suggest formulas that will suit for baby. These formulas have nutrients that are also found in breast milk. Conventional types of milk products are not advisable because it may lead to indigestion. Another thing is that those products have low iron content, not good aid curing IDA, and is lacking vitamin C, D and E. † Practices in the Philippines that contribute to problem of breastfeeding. Across East Asia, mothers are turning away from breastfeeding in huge numbers, regardless of the well-attested health risks to their babies. Filipino mothers are not mentally deficient but many are quite unsuspicious consumers and susceptible to the advance and sophisticated marketing techniques deployed by the milk powder companies. â€Å"Despite of the underlying beneficial effects of breastfeeding, both incidence and duration have been varying in most developing countries of the world, not the case in the Philippines. From 14. 5 months in 1963 – 67, the average duration of breast-feeding was declining to 12. 1 months during 1978 – 82. These decreasing rates drastically affect families having low income and inadequate child nutrition† [10]. Paraz [8] said, â€Å"Non-violation of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes adopted by WHO in 1981 will initiate sufficiency on breastfeeding recommendations among mothers and families. † Duration (short) of breastfeeding in the Philippines. During 1997, the Philippines demonstrated only 10 percent of infants that were never breastfed at birth. The proportion of â€Å"never breastfed infant† was comparatively higher in 1983, which has an increase of 10 percent in rural and 27 percent in urban areas. Breastfeeding discrepancies between urban and rural, marked 34 percent of never breastfed infants, were found in Manila [10]. Breastfeeding duration is short though it is widely exercised and culturally established in the Philippines. No more than 14 percent of mothers keep on breastfeeding up to 2 years. [8] Carisa Paraz, â€Å"Breastfeeding can cut infant deaths†, Medical Observer: Passing Problem, no. 7, August 2007, pp. 8 Deprivation of beneficial effects of colostrum due to delayed breastfeeding. Filipino women influenced by cultural norms and beliefs often think that colostrum is a dirty milk and should be eliminated. They delay breastfeeding several days after birth. Benefits of colostrum are consequently deprived. Practice of initiating supplements and non-nutritive liquids at an early age is a more serious problem. This supplementary feeding may contaminate diet for infants because of unfamiliar chemicals present in the food. It further reduces contraceptive effects for mothers. â€Å"Male infants in the Philippines are completely breastfed for a shorter duration compared to many Asian countries. Boys are supplemented, earlier than girls to meet the increasing necessities for growth. Increased diarrhoeal rates are caused mainly by this kind of supplementation among male infants. Moreover, boys receive more starchy staples while girls consume larger amount of green leafy vegetables. In effect, girls are much likely prone to malnutrition than boys. They have more serious eye damage from Vitamin A deficiency. †[10] All mentioned statements are considered as contributors to breastfeeding problems in the Philippines. For child survival, breastfeeding period should be given priority. For benefits of both mother and child, primary factors in feeding infants should be recognized. Many studies showed that breastfeeding manifests child health and well-being, including child survival and child spacing. Thus, it is important to know and to be updated about the current breastfeeding practices in the Philippines. Likewise, analysis of factors affecting short breastfeeding period should be dealt with. Literature Review In this section, the study made by experts regarding matters affecting breastfeeding and infant feeding will be assessed. It is expected that the data created by prior tests provide a framework for a review that follows. Breastfeeding and supplementary feeding WHO [9] states that, ‘babies must be completely breastfed for six months of age to attain the primary development and sufficient nutrition— important for lifetime wellness. ’ However, dietary necessities for infants are increasing as they grow, they should be also given complementary or supplementary foods but breastfeeding is still ongoing until two or more years. â€Å"As babies grow into young children, their nutritional needs change quickly. At around six months, breast milk alone is no longer sufficient to meet a baby’s energy and nutrition requirements. The baby is also at a stage of development where he/she can start to swallow non-liquid food. The introduction of appropriate and nutritious complementary food to babies from this age is extremely important as it plays a crucial role in the child’s physical and cognitive development†[13]. From about 6 months of age, breast milk alone is no longer sufficient to cover a baby’s nutritional requirements. He or she can also start to swallow non-liquid complementary foods at this stage, helping to support growth, brain development and the building of natural defenses. The period of weaning is critical for the future development and growth of infants. Breastfeeding in developed countries vs. developing (rural) countries. In urban countries, as Kyi [10] studied, duration of breastfeeding is reduced and supplemental foods are introduced early. It is because of [9] WHO, Exclusive breastfeeding, World Health Oraganization, 15 January 2011 [Online]. Available: http://www. who. int [Accesed: 19 July 2012] [13] Nestle, Breastfeeding and Complementary Feeding, Nestle, 2008. [Online] Available: http://www. babymilk. nestle. om/complementary-feeding [Accessed: 28 July 2012] the mothers’ occupation, which is conflicting with extended breastfeeding. Also, in these areas, availability of breast milk substitutes is sufficient making them to shift from breast to bottle feeding. On the other hand, in developing countries, breastfeeding is done until eight to twelve months due to unavailability of milk substitute and scarcity. Supplementary foods are deferre d causing malnutrition. Table 3. 1- Percentage (%) of children (2003-2008) who are: Country| exclusively breastfed| breastfeedingwith complementary feeding| till breastfed(extended)| | 0-5 months| 6-9 months| 12-15 months| 20-24 months| Afghanistan| -| 29| 92| 54| Bangladesh| 43| 74| 95| 91| Brazil| 40| 70| 50| 25| Cambodia| 60| 82| 90| 54| China| -| 32| 43| 15| Ethiopia| 49| 54| 94| 88| India| 46| 57| 88| 77| Indonesia| 32| 75| 80| 50| North Korea| 65| 31| 67| 37| Laos| 26| 70| 82| 48| Malaysia| 29| -| -| 12| Mexico| 38| 36| 32| 21| Myanmar| 15| 66| 85| 67| Pakistan| 37| 36| 79| 55| Philippines| 34| 58| 58| 34| Qatar| 12| 48| 32| 21| Saudi Arabia| 31| 60| 59| 30| Sri Lanka| 76| 86| 92| 83| Thailand| 5| 43| 32| 19| Turkey| 40| 71| 58| 26| United Arab Emirates| 34| 52| 50| 29| Vietnam| 17| 70| 78| 23| Zimbabwe| 22| 79| 87| 40| Above is a table containing statistics of children from selected developing countries who were breastfed, exclusively, with complementary foods and extended breastfeeding by UNICEF [16]. Countries Australia, France, Italy, Spain United Kingdom and United States were not included since they are [16] UNICEF, Statistics about breastfeeding, UNICEF, 2009. [PDF] Available: http://www. childinfo. org [Accessed: 28/ 7 /12] considered developed countries. Also Asian countries, also known as Four Asian Tigers or Asian Dragons, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore and Taiwan, were excluded as they have graduated from being a developing country as declared by IMF (International Monetary Fund) [14] . Bangladesh and Ethiopia, countries from Asia and Africa respectively, and listed as least developed countries by the United Nations [14], has the higher percentage of breastfeeding rate compared to Malaysia and Thailand, considered the more developed countries, gaining lower rates with regards to the list. Breast feeding strengthens the economy by adding significantly to the national food supply. The economic value of mothers’ milk production is large, worth billions of dollars even in small countries. †[8 p. 8 para. 7] WHO Recommendations The World Health Organization (WHO) is the agency that supports and evaluates matters regarding nutrition, especially breastfeeding. Along with UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), powered by the Un ited Nations, their primary concern is child health and nutrition. For mothers to be able to start and maintain breastfeeding for six months, UNICEF and WHO [9] suggest that ‘breastfeeding should be initiated within the first hour of life, exclusive, on demand, and bottles or others should be avoided. WHO recommends mothers worldwide to exclusively breastfeed their infants for the child’s first six months to achieve optimal growth, development and health. Thereafter, they should be given nutritious complementary foods and continue breastfeeding up to the age of two years or beyond. ’ Globally less than forty-percent (40%) of infants fewer than six months of age are exclusively breasted. Adequate breast feeding support for children, mothers and families could save many young lives† [9]. [14] Wiki, Developing Countries, Wikipedia. org, 28 July 2012 [Online]. Available: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Developing_country [Accessed: 29 July 2012] [8] Carisa Paraz, â€Å"Breastfeeding can cut infant deaths†, Medical Observe r: Passing Problem, no. 7, August 2007, pp. 8 [9] WHO, Exclusive breastfeeding, World Health Oraganization, 15 January 2011 [Online]. Available: http://www. who. int [Accesed: 19 July 2012] Definition of terms Based on WHO Code (International Code of Marketing of Breast milk Substitutes) Breast-milk substitute- means ‘any food being marketed or otherwise presented as a partial or total replacement for breast milk, whether or not suitable for that purpose [17 p. 8]’. Complementary food- means ‘any food whether manufactured or locally prepared, suitable as a complement to breast milk or to infant formula, when either become insufficient to satisfy the nutritional requirements of the infant. Such food is also commonly called weaning food or breast-milk supplement [17 p. 8]’. Infant formula- means a breast-milk substitute formulated industrially in accordance with applicable Codex Alimentarius standards, to satisfy the normal nutritional requirements of infants up to between four and six months of age, and adapted to their physiological characteristics [17 p. 9]’ . Exclusive Breastfeeding- as Kathy ; Sue [12] said, it means, ‘setting off other foods for the infant, including water, the breast milk is the only food to be in taken by the child’. The Philippines Department of Health (DOH). Aside from WHO, the Department of Health is the main institution that is imposing activities and information egarding health and nutrition for Filipino mothers and infants particularly in breastfeeding. â€Å"In response to the 1981 International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes by the World Health Organization (WHO), the Philippines Department of Health strongly advocates breastfeeding for nursing mothers instead of using breast milk subst itutes. Republic Act 7600, known as The Rooming-In and Breastfeeding Act of 1992, provides incentives to all government and private health institutions in the Philippines that support rooming-in and breastfeeding. The Act provides that newborn infants with normal deliveries be put to the mother’s breast immediately after birth, and roomed-in within 30 minutes; infants delivered by caesarean section should be roomed-in and breastfed within 3 to 4 hours after delivery†[15]. [17] WHO and Nestle, International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, World Health Organization Geneva, 1981 [PDF] Available: http://www. babymilk. nestle. com/who-code-compliance and http://www. who. int [Accessed: 28 July 2012 12] Sue Ann Kendall and Kathy Dettwyler, Exclusive breastfeeding, Kathy Dettwyler, 3 August 1995. [Online] Available: http://www. kathydettwyler. org/detexclusive. html [Accessed: 25 July 2012] [15] NSO Manila and ICF Macro, Philippines: National Demographic and Health Survey 2008, National Statistics Office Manila, Philippines and ICF Macro Calverton, Maryland, USA, December 2009, Chapter 11. [EBook]. Available: Measure DHS, http://www. measuredhs. com/publications [Accessed: 29 July 2012] Factors Influencing duration of breastfeeding Demographic Factors Maternal age: Many researchers found that older women tend to breast feed longer. It is likely that older women have more experience in infant feeding than younger women. They may know the benefits of breast-feeding by their own experience and as a result, they are more likely to breastfeed longer. A study [10] found that older women are more likely to continue breast-feeding beyond 18 months than younger women in rural. Parity: Parity of mother has significant effect on breast-feeding duration, usually women with higher parity breastfeed their children for longer duration. It is most likely that women with higher parity are usually older, less educated and less likely to involve in formal employment sector. Also, women with many children are more likely to be from rural areas and follow the traditional lifestyles. Therefore, they can breastfeed longer, which is a common phenomenon in rural areas. However, studies [10] found out that it could be depending on the setting. They found out that the tradition is a key in the duration of breastfeeding when it comes to parity. Birth order of the child: Some researchers found the positive relationship between birth order of the child and duration of breast-feeding. The higher the birth order of the child is, the longer is the duration of breast-feeding. It is because children of higher birth order are more likely to be borne by older mothers, who are less likely to engage in employment sector and can breastfeed them longer. Another reason may be that these mothers may have older children who help them in household work, so they have more time to breastfeed their babies. This is the common pattern in many societies. Sex of the child: It is one of the important factors influencing duration of breast-feeding. In some countries, male children are breastfed for longer period than female children due to son preference by cultural or religious reason. It is a common phenomenon in China, some South Asian countries and also in some Arab countries. A study [10] says that, in China of 4,084 ever-married women under age 50 in Shaanxi found that male children are breastfed longer than female children. On the other hand, reverse phenomenon is seen in some countries. Male children are fully breastfed for a shorter period than female children in the Philippines. Mothers supplement boys earlier to meet their increasing needs for growth than to girls or because of sex preferences that favor the provision of supplements to boys rather than to girls. Subsequent pregnancy: Researchers found the association between duration of breast-feeding and subsequent pregnancy of mothers. Generally, mothers discontinue breast-feeding as soon as they know that they are pregnant. It is because of a common belief that breast milk of pregnant women can rot and cause disease in the child. Similar pattern is found out based on the study [10] in Cebu, Philippines. Strongest determinant of breast-feeding duration is the mother’s perception of being pregnant. Most women who become pregnant while lactating stop breast-feeding before the end of the first trimester because they often say that pregnancy is associated with â€Å"sour milk†. Residence: Many researchers found that duration of breast-feeding varies markedly between urban and rural mothers. Although there is no exact reason why rural women breastfeed more and longer duration than urban women, some suggested that changing lifestyles in urban areas are not compatible with breastfeeding. This finding was supported by Kyi [10], that in the Philippines, during the period 1973-88, women who breastfed shortest duration lived in Manila City. This common phenomenon is the result of urbanization and changing social system in many parts of the world. Usually, family members can encourage women to breastfeed especially in extended families. Such families are more prevalent in rural areas. It is one of the reasons why rural women breastfeed more and longer than urban women. Along with modernization, women become more educated and take part in employment sector, which is usually incompatible with prolonged duration of breast-feeding. Moreover, utilization of modern maternity care services is common among educated women especially in urban areas, which less encourage women to breast feed for long period. These factors together with other factors contribute to marked difference in the duration of breast-feeding according to urban-rural differential. Socioeconomic Factors Mother’s Education: Effect of maternal education on duration of breastfeeding varies in different societies. Along with modernization, well-educated women tend to breastfeed for a shorter period especially in urban areas. It may be that as women become more educated, they are more likely to involve in formal employment, which is not compatible for longer duration of breast-feeding. However, the reverse pattern is seen in some developed countries since well educated women are more likely to breastfeed their babies and for a longer period. The possible explanation is that as women become more educated they become more aware of advantages of breast-feeding and thus they breastfeed their babies longer. A research [10] done in the Philippines found that women with higher education are more likely to breastfeed for a short time. The result is based on a study of 2,622 mothers in both urban and rural communities of Cebu City. Also, that highly educated mothers from families with highest income or asset categories are least likely to breastfeed and they do so for a short period. Mother’s Occupation: The work status of women causes a major difference in the duration of breast-feeding since it requires leaving the infant at home during working hours. Therefore, duration of breast-feeding is shorter among working mothers. In addition, type and pattern of job of mothers also influence the duration of breast-feeding in different societies. Location of work or distance of work from home, type of work, the other alternative available for child care and the income derived from the work all seem to be important. For mothers who work as suggested by WHO [9], time and place are the key things that affect the duration of breastfeeding. There is a necessity of time and place for them to continue breastfeeding. However, solutions like maternity leave, part-time work arrangements, breastfeeding breaks, etc. can help them going on with breastfeeding. Father’s Education: Like other factors, father’s education can also affect duration of breast-feeding. Usually, well- educated men can get a good job and as a result, they can earn sufficient income. Also, better-educated man tends to marry better-educated women. If both of them are employed, they can earn more income for the family. As their income increases, they can purchase household items such as refrigerator, gas or kerosene stove, which favors the use of breast milk substitutes. As such, it will lead to shorter duration of breast-feeding. Father’s education may also have positive effect on breastfeeding. It is because as fathers are well educated, they have more access to the messages from the health sector or from the mass media. As they understand the benefits of breastfeeding, they will encourage their spouses to breastfeed longer. The research [10] found out that there is an inverse relationship between father’s education and duration of breast feeding. Longer duration of breastfeeding is seen among children whose fathers are with no schooling or less schooling. Household Economic Status: In countries like Bangladesh, Mexico, Philippines and Vietnam, the relationship between household economic status and breastfeeding is inversed. Upper class babies are less likely to be breastfed than those of others [10]. [10] Aye Kyi Kyi, Factors Affecting Breastfeeding in the Philippines: An Analysis of 1998 NDHS Data, M. A. Thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahindol University, Myanmar, 2000. [9] WHO, Exclusive breastfeeding, World Health Oraganization, 15 January 2011 [Online]. Available: http://www. who. int [Accesed: 19 July 2012] Health Service Factors In most developing countries, lower rates of breastfeeding and shorter duration are associated with health care services. ‘Breastfeeding rates are decreasing because health services are not receiving the support they need. [8 p. 8]’ Ante natal Care Visits: During these periods, the attitudes and beliefs of the health professionals influence the women’s own knowledge and attitude towards breastfeeding. The more the pregnant women visit her ob-gyne, the more knowledge she can receive. It will lead to successful initiation of breastfeeding and continuation for the period advised by the health personnel. Place and mode of delivery: Utilization of health care services has an important effect on duration of breastfeeding. Practice of health workers at different health facilities can influence the women’s decision to breastfeed. On the other hand, the form of delivery can affect the duration of breastfeeding. Ireland [11] said that in normal delivery, women are more likely to breastfeed than those of via caesarean section. Healing process or the condition of the baby could be the two main factors given that women cannot choose their mode of delivery. Advice from health personnel: Duration of breastfeeding also depends on whether the woman receive advice on breastfeeding from health worker or not. In the Philippines, as researched by Kyi [10], there is no statistically significant effect of breastfeeding promotional messages on the intention and duration of breastfeeding. Conceptual Framework The underlying concept of this study is that duration of breast-feeding can be affected by demographic, socioeconomic and health service factors. Among many demographic factors; age of mother, parity, subsequent pregnancy, sex of child, birth order of child and residence (urban / rural) are assumed as important factors influencing duration of breast-feeding. Out of many socioeconomic factors, mother’s education, occupation, father’s education and economic level of household are regarded as major [8] Carisa Paraz, â€Å"Breastfeeding can cut infant deaths†, Medical Observer: Passing Problem, no. 7, August 2007, pp. 8 [11] Jae Ireland, Factors affecting breastfeeding mothers, Livestrong, 15 July 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www. ivestrong. com/article/493114-factors-affecting-breastfeeing-mothers [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [10] Aye Kyi Kyi, Factors Affecting Breastfeeding in the Philippines: An Analysis of 1998 NDHS Data, M. A. Thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahindol University, Myanmar, 2000. determinants of duration of breast-feeding. Among various health service factors, 3 factors are considered important for duration of breast-feeding. There are number of antenatal care visits, place and mode of delivery and whether the woman had received an advice on breast-feeding during the post-partum period or not. This conceptual framework is presented in the figure below. Independent VariablesCategoryDependent Variable Mother’s Age Parity Subsequent Pregnancy Birth Order of the Child Demographic Factor Sex of the Child Residence Mother’s Occupation Duration of Breastfeeding Mother’s Education Father’s Education Socioeconomic Factor Household Economic Status Ante natal Care Visits Place and Mode of Delivery Health Service Factor Advice from Health Worker Fig. 3. 1- Conceptual Framework: Factors Influencing Duration of Breastfeeding The most valuable thing mothers can give their babies during early years is the milk obtained from breastfeeding. This means of feeding infants is the earliest known form. It is widely used since the first human had existed. Until the present time, breastfeeding continues to promote many useful effects for people in diverged societies. â€Å"Breast milk is the most suitable food for human newborn and the safest way of feeding infants for the first four to six months of life†[8]. According to studies, it gives perfect nutrition for babies and builds the foundation for their healthy psychosocial progress. Human milk is the milk made specifically for human infants. It is always natural as it is. Because of this exceptional reason, benefit earners involve not only the infants but as well their mothers, their families, their community, their environment and even the economy in which they live The researchers observed several studies that revealed many advantages of breastfeeding. It is recognized as the best nutrient for infants; natural contraceptive for mothers for about 6 months post-partum; preventive action for mothers against breast and ovarian cancers and provision of bonding between mother and child. Breastfeeding is not just a matter of supplying better milk. Of course, the increased opportunity for parent-child bonding offered by breastfeeding is a widely known benefit of nursing. One of the most important advantages of breastfeeding is that the mother is present. This is nature's plan for keeping mother and child close, providing the connection and reassurance the child needs so profoundly. Breastfeeding, beyond all of its many physical benefits, has the built-in bonus of requiring the mother's close presence. In addition to its nutritive value, breast milk also has protective action against common infections. The milk secreted called â€Å"colostrums† contains anti-infective property which can prevent the newborn from diarrhea and pneumonia. If babies are probably prevented from those diseases, they will have a stronger immune system. The protective action of breast milk is very important for the child wellness. In the Philippines, to be particular, warm weather affects the spread rate of bacteria. As a result, infants may be largely exposed to common infections. Malnutrition plays a huge role in child mortality because the immune systems of these children are less resistant to common childhood diseases. This is why a common cold or bout of diarrhea can kill a malnourished child. By simply ensuring exclusive breast feeding for infants, malnutrition is somehow addressed. Aside from its direct effects on the health and well-being of babies, breast feeding has a profound impact on the economy. It strengthens the economy by adding significantly to the national food supply. The economic value of mothers’ milk production is large, worth billions of dollars even in small countries like Philippines. It also reduces future burdens on the health system. Exclusive breast feeding is giving infants is giving infants with only breast milk until 4 to 6 months of age. It greatly matters since it is attributed with almost complete protection against cholera and diarrhea. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended that all infants should be exclusively breastfed and begin to receive supplementary foods between fourth to sixth months. This means that feeding infants is not just to breastfeed them. It is to give them the proper nutrition through â€Å"exclusive breastfeeding†. With the right duration and process, organized health system is assured. Both â€Å"too short† and â€Å"too long† duration of breast feeding is not appropriate for child nutrition. The Philippines showed short duration of breast feeding cases according to the researchers’ study. Despite of the beneficial effects derived from breast feeding, both incidence and duration have been changing. This is a serious problem. When mothers shortly breastfeed, their babies tends to receive limited infection-fighting antibodies. Beneficial effects of colostrum are likewise deprived. It is necessary for mothers to know what contributes to problem of breast feeding practices in the Philippines. Because of traditions and customs in the Philippines, a belief passed over generations is often conceptualized. Filipino women believe that colostrum should be discarded because it is dirty milk. This common misconception about the colostrum must be rejected. In this case, mothers must also learn the current breast feeding practices to be informed and updated. Support for breast feeding must go beyond the hospital, and involve communities, work-places, local governments, workers’ unions, mass organizations and consumer associations, in addition to the already very acute nongovernment organizations. Mother’s effort is worth the health of their children. Health services should have support coming from the government. Breastfeeding period depends on whether the woman receives counseling on breast feeding from health workers or not. A health worker may influence a lot of mothers and encourage them to breastfeed exclusively. However in the Philippines, there is no significant effect of breast feeding promotional messages on the purpose and period of breast feeding. Furthermore, mothers breastfeed their babies for a dramatically shorter period if they were told to feed formula. As infant-formula sales increase, the number of breastfeeding mothers goes down. Local infant- formula companies spend billions of dollars a year to endorse their products. This is in contrast to poorly funded public health systems that fail to provide health workers with the skills and knowledge needed to promote breast feeding. Filipino mothers must be wise consumers and be aware of the marketing techniques to be considered on buying milk powder formulas. For wide application, the researchers found that breast feeding can be a solution to the rapid growth of population in the country. If mothers fully breastfeed longer than the old tradition, there is a delay for next pregnancy eve if she does not use any contraceptive method. Breastfeeding can be an instant and effective contraception. Considering all benefits offered by breast feeding, the group concluded that all infants, specifically Filipino children, should undergo exclusive breast feeding. References [1] Gerber, â€Å"Some notes on breastfeeding†, Countdown: Nine Months to a Perfect Delivery, 2004, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 31 [2] PT Staff, The Benefits of Breastfeeding, Psychology Today, 01 January 1996 [Online]. Available: http://www. psychologytoday. com/articles/199601/the-benefits-breast-feeding [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [3] S. Cocabo and P. Kin, â€Å"Childcare: the first 3 years†, Your Health Guide: The Family Wealth, Medimarketing, Inc. , Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines, 1994, pp. 26 [4] Medicine Net, Breastfeeding and formula feeding, Medicine Net, 1996, p. 2 [Online]. Available: http://www. medicinenet. com [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [5] Wyeth, â€Å"Breast milk: The Ideal First Food†, Pampering Baby with Care: Your Baby Care Guide, Wyeth Nutrition, pp. 23, pp. 25 6] Epigee,ContraceptiveBenefitsofBreastfeeding,Epigee,2012. [Online]. Available: http://www. epigee. org/fetal/contraception. html [Accessed: 19 July 2012] [7] The Quote Garden, Breastfeeding, 1998, p. 1 [Online] Available: http://www. quotegarden. com/breastfeeding. html [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [8] Carisa Paraz, â€Å"Breastfeeding can cut infant deaths†, Medical Observer: Passing Problem, no. 7, Augus t 2007, pp. 8 [9] WHO, Exclusive breastfeeding, World Health Oraganization, 15 January 2011 [Online]. Available: http://www. who. nt [Accesed: 19 July 2012] [10] Aye Kyi Kyi, Factors Affecting Breastfeeding in the Philippines: An Analysis of 1998 NDHS Data, M. A. Thesis, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahindol University, Myanmar, 2000. [11] Jae Ireland, Factors affecting breastfeeding mothers, Livestrong, 15 July 2011. [Online]. Available:http://www. livestrong. com/article/493114-factors-affecting-breastfeeing- mothers [Accessed: 18 July 2012] [12] Sue Ann Kendall and Kathy Dettwyler, Exclusive breastfeeding, Kathy Dettwyler, 3 August 1995. [Online] Available: http://www. kathydettwyler. org/detexclusive. tml [Accessed: 25 July 2012] [13] Nestle, Breastfeeding and Complementary Feeding, Nestle, 2008. [Online] Available: http://www. babymilk. nestle. com/complementary-feeding [Accessed: 28 July 2012] [14] Wiki,DevelopingCountries,Wikipedia. org,28July2012[Online] Available: http://en . wikipedia. org/wiki/Developing_country [Accessed: 29 July 2012] [15] NSO Manila and ICF Macro, Philippines: National Demographic and Health Survey 2008, National Statistics Office Manila, Philippines and ICF Macro Calverton, Maryland, USA, December 2009, Chapter 11. EBook]. Available: Measure DHS, http://www. measuredhs. com/publications [Accessed: 29 July 2012] [16] UNICEF, Statistics about breastfeeding, UNICEF, 2009. [PDF] Available: UNICEF, http://www. childinfo. org [Accessed: 28 July 2012] [17] WHO and Nestle, International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, World Health Organization Geneva, 1981 [PDF] Available:http://www. babymilk. nestle. com and http://www. who. int [Accessed: 28 July 2012]